How different are performance management systems? Empirical typology of performance management systems
Abstract
The purpose of the research is to extract an empirical typology presenting the diverse types of PMSs. For creating empirical typology, a Two-Step cluster analysis was applied. The types of PMSs are characterized by the variables extracted from the chain model found in the literature. We discovered two relevant dimensions specifying the PMSs: the importance of strategy for the firms and the multitude of organizational levels. Based on these, we extracted four clusters (types) of PMS along the dimensions of strategy focusing and organizational level. The findings show that the most advanced PMSs are found in the Strategy-focused Multi-level cluster, before the Strategyfocused One-level cluster. We also linked the dimensions within the four aspects of PMSs: strategic, alignment and process, usage, and information aspects. We found that the expected success of PMSs is positively related to the strategy-focus and multiplicity of levels. These findings broaden the common typologies of PMS and add the intrinsic features of the firm to the types of PMS reflecting strategy orientation and the multitude of hierarchy levels of the firm.
Keyword : Performance Management Systems (PMS), cluster analysis, key success factors, clusters of PMS, hierarchy levels, strategy focus
How to Cite
Kadak, T., & Laitinen, E. K. (2023). How different are performance management systems? Empirical typology of performance management systems. Journal of Business Economics and Management, 24(2), 368–386. https://doi.org/10.3846/jbem.2023.19248
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
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Battesini, M., ten Caten, C. S., & de Jesus Pacheco, D. A. (2021). Key factors for operational performance in manufacturing systems: Conceptual model, systematic literature review and implications. Journal of Manufacturing Systems, 60, 265–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmsy.2021.06.005
Bedford, D., Brown, D. A., Malmi, T., & Sivabalan, P. (2008). Balanced scorecard design and performance impacts: Some Australian evidence. Journal of Applied Management Accounting Research, 6, 17–36.
Benabdellah, A. C., Benghabrit, A., & Bouhaddou, I. (2019). A survey of clustering algorithms for an industrial context. Procedia Computer Science, 148, 291–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2019.01.022
Bourne, M. C. (2008). Performance measurement: Learning from the past and projecting the future. Measuring Business Excellence, 12(4), 67–72. https://doi.org/10.1108/13683040810919971
Bourne, M. C., Franco, M., & Wilkes, J. (2003). Corporate performance management. Measuring Business Excellence, 7(3), 15–21. https://doi.org/10.1108/13683040310496462
Bourne, M. C., Mills, J. F., Wilcox, M., Neely, A. D., & Platts, K. W. (2000). Designing, implementing and updating performance measurement systems. International Journal of Operations and Production management, 20(7), 754–771. https://doi.org/10.1108/01443570010330739
Cheng, M. M., Luckett, P. F., & Mahama, H. (2007). Effect of perceived conflict among multiple performance goals and goal difficulty on task performance. Accounting and Finance, 47(2), 221–242. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-629X.2007.00215.x
Choong, K. K. (2014). The fundamentals of performance measurement systems: A systematic approach to theory and a research agenda. International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management, 63(7), 879–922. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJPPM-01-2013-0015
Couturier, J., & Sklavounos, N. (2019). Performance dialogue: A framework to enhance the effectiveness of performance measurement systems. International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management, 68(4), 699–720. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJPPM-09-2017-0238
Crabtree, A. D., & DeBusk, G. K. (2008). The effects of adopting the balanced scorecard on shareholder returns. Advances in Accounting, 24(1), 8–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adiac.2008.05.016
Cross, K. F., & Lynch, R. L. (1992). For good measure. CMA Magazine, (April), 20–23.
Cuccurullo, C., Aria, M., & Sarto, F. (2016). Foundations and trends in performance management. A twenty-five years bibliometric analysis in business and public administration domains. Scientometrics, 108, 595–611. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-016-1948-8
Cuguero-Escofet, N., & Rosanas, J. M. (2013). The just design and use of management control systems as requirements for goal congruence. Management Accounting Research, 24, 23–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mar.2012.11.001
Davis, S., & Albright, T. (2004). An investigation of the effect of Balanced Scorecard implementation on financial performance. Management Accounting Research, 5, 135–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mar.2003.11.001
de Waal, A. (2018). Defining and measuring high performance organization. Retreived May 3, 2023, from https://www.hpocenter.nl/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Clute-2018-Defining-and-measuring-the-high-organizational-organization-De-Waal.pdf
de Waal, A. (2007). Strategic performance management. A managerial and behavioural approach. Palgrave Macmillan.
Eccles, R. G. (1991). The performance measurement manifesto. Harvard Business Review, 69(1), 131–137.
Ferreira, A., & Otley, D. (2009). The design and use of management control systems: An extended framework for analysis. Management Accounting Research, 20, 263–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mar.2009.07.003
Folan, P., & Browne, J. (2005). A review of performance measurement: Towards performance management. Journal Computers in Industry, 56(7), 663–680. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compind.2005.03.001
Franco-Santos, M., Lucianetti, L., & Bourne, M. (2012). Contemporary performance measurement systems: A review of their consequences and a framework for research. Management Accounting Research, 23, 79–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mar.2012.04.001
Franco-Santos, M., Kennerley, M., Pietro, M., Martinez, V., Mason, S., Marr, B., Gray, D., & Neely, A. (2007). Towards a definition of a business performance measurement system. International Journal of Operations and Production Management, 27(8), 784–801. https://doi.org/10.1108/01443570710763778
Franco, M., & Bourne, M. (2003). Factors that play a role in “managing through measures”. Management Decision, 41(8), 698–710. https://doi.org/10.1108/00251740310496215
Govindarajan, V., & Shank, J. K. (1992). Strategic cost management: Tailoring controls to strategies. Journal of Cost Management, 6(3), 14–25.
Guenther, T. W., & Heinicke, A. (2019). Relationships among types of use, levels of sophistication, and organizational outcomes of performance measurement systems: The crucial role of design choices. Management Accounting Research, 42, 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mar.2018.07.002
Hall, M. (2008). The effect of comprehensive performance measurement systems on role clarity, psychological empowerment and managerial performance. Accounting Organizations and Society, 33(2–3), 141–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aos.2007.02.004
HassabElnaby, H. R., Said, A. A., & Wier, B. (2005). The retention of nonfinancial performance measures in compensation contracts. Journal of Management Accounting Research, 17, 23–42. https://doi.org/10.2308/jmar.2005.17.1.23
Hope, T., & Hope, J. (1995). Transforming the bottom line. Nicholas Brealey Publishing.
Hoque, Z. (2004). A contingency model of the association between strategy, environmental uncertainty and performance measurement: Impact on organizational performance. International Business Review, 13, 485–502. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2004.04.003
Hoque, Z., & James, W. (2000). Linking balanced scorecard measures to size and market factors: Impact on organizational performance. Journal of Management Accounting Research, 12, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.2308/jmar.2000.12.1.1
Irfani, D. P., Wibisono, D., & Basri, M. H. (2020). Integrating performance measurement, system dynamics, and problem-solving methods. International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management, 69(5), 939–961. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJPPM-12-2018-0456
Ittner, C. D., Larcker, D. F., & Randall, T. (2003). Performance implications of strategic performance measurement in financial service firms. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 28(7–8), 715–741. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0361-3682(03)00033-3
Jazayeri, M., & Scapens, R. W. (2008). The business values scorecard within BAE systems: The evolution of a performance measurement system. British Accounting Review, 40(1), 48–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bar.2007.10.007
Jukka, T. (2023). Does business strategy and management control system fit determine performance? International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management, 72(3), 659–678. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJPPM-11-2020-0584
Kadak, T., & Laitinen, E. K. (2016a). What matters with PMS? Critical check points in the success of PMS. Studies in Managerial and Financial Accounting, Performance Measurement and Management Control: Contemporary Issues, 31, 111–140. https://doi.org/10.1108/S1479-351220160000031004
Kadak, T., & Laitinen, E. K. (2016b). Are more formal performance management systems more successful. In Accounting, Auditing, and Taxation, ICAAT 2016 (pp. 173−189). Atlantis Press. https://doi.org/10.2991/icaat-16.2016.19
Kadak, T. (2011). Creation of a supportive model for designing and improving the performance management system of an organisation. Case studies. Tallinn University of Technology, TUT Press.
Kaplan, R. S., & Norton, D. P. (2006). Alignment: Using the balanced scorecard to create corporate synergies. Harvard Business School Press.
Kaplan, R. S., & Norton, D. P. (2001). The strategy-focused organization: How balanced scorecard companies thrive in the new business environment. Harvard Business School Press.
Kaplan, R. S., & Norton, D. P. (1996). The balanced scorecard. Harvard Business School Press.
Kaplan, R. S., & Norton, D. P. (1992). The balanced scorecard – measures that drive performance. Harvard Business Review, (January/February), 71–79.
Laitinen, E. K., & Kadak, T. (2019). Explaining success of performance management systems: The role of chain of key factors. International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management, 68(2), 362–388. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJPPM-01-2018-0005
Lohman, C., Fortuin, L., & Wouters, M. (2004). Designing a performance measurement system: A case study. European Journal of Operational Research, 156, 267–286. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0377-2217(02)00918-9
Meekings, A. (1995). Unlocking the potential of performance measurement: A guide to practical implementation. Public Money and Management, 8(4), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540969509387888
Malina, M. A., & Selto, F. H. (2001). Communicating and controlling strategy: an empirical study of the effectiveness of the balanced scorecard. Journal of Management Accounting Research, 13, 47–90. https://doi.org/10.2308/jmar.2001.13.1.47
Matos, L. D. S., Ensslin, S. R., & Ensslin, L. (2019). A review on the performance measurement systems life cycle. Lex Localis – Journal of Local Self-Government, 17(4), 939–959.
Miles, R. E., & Snow, C. C. (1978). Organizational strategy, structure and process. McGraw-Hill. https://doi.org/10.2307/257544
Morgan, G. (2007). Images of organization. Sage Publications.
Neely, A. D. (2008). Does the balanced scorecard work: An empirical investigation. (Research paper, 1/08). Cranfield University, School of Management, Cranfield.
Neely, A. D. (2005). The evolution of performance measurement research: developments in the last decade and a research agenda for the next. International Journal of Operations and Production Management, 25(12), 1264–1277. https://doi.org/10.1108/01443570510633648
Nudurupati, S. S., Garengo, P., & Bititci, U. S. (2021). Impact of the changing business environment on performance measurement and management practices. International Journal of Production Economics, 232, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpe.2020.107942
Said, A. A., HassabElnaby, H. R., & Wier, B. (2003). An empirical investigation of the performance consequences of nonfinancial measures. Journal of Management Accounting Research, 15, 193–223. https://doi.org/10.2308/jmar.2003.15.1.193
Sardi, A., Sorani, E., Ferrais, A., & Garengo, P. (2020). Evolutionary paths of performance measurement and management system: the longitudinal case study of a leading SM. Measuring Business Excellence, 24(4), 495–510. https://doi.org/10.1108/MBE-01-2020-0016
Simons, R. (1995). Levers of control: How managers use innovative control systems to drive strategic renewal. Harvard Business School Press.
Speckbacher, G., Bischof, J., & Pfeiffer, T. (2003). A descriptive analysis on the implementation of balanced scorecards in German-speaking countries. Management Accounting Research, 14, 361–387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mar.2003.10.001
SPSS Inc. (2001). The SPSS twostep cluster component: A scalable component enabling more efficient customer segmentation (Technical report). Chicago, IL.
Tangen, S. (2005). Insights from practice Analysing the requirements of performance measurement systems. Measuring Business Excellence, 9(4), 46–54. https://doi.org/10.1108/13683040510634835
Taticchi, P., Balachandran, K., & Tonelli, F. (2012). Performance measurement and management systems: state of the art, guidelines for design and challenges. Measuring Business Excellence, 16(2), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1108/13683041211230311
Vancil, R. F. (1973). What kind of management control do you need? Harvard Business Review.
Yu, L., Perera, S., & Crowe, S. (2008). Effectiveness of the balanced scorecard: The impact of strategy and causal links. Journal of Applied Management Accounting Research, 6(2), 37–56.
Anthony, R. N., & Govindarajan, V. (2003). Management control systems. McGraw-Hill.
Battesini, M., ten Caten, C. S., & de Jesus Pacheco, D. A. (2021). Key factors for operational performance in manufacturing systems: Conceptual model, systematic literature review and implications. Journal of Manufacturing Systems, 60, 265–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmsy.2021.06.005
Bedford, D., Brown, D. A., Malmi, T., & Sivabalan, P. (2008). Balanced scorecard design and performance impacts: Some Australian evidence. Journal of Applied Management Accounting Research, 6, 17–36.
Benabdellah, A. C., Benghabrit, A., & Bouhaddou, I. (2019). A survey of clustering algorithms for an industrial context. Procedia Computer Science, 148, 291–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2019.01.022
Bourne, M. C. (2008). Performance measurement: Learning from the past and projecting the future. Measuring Business Excellence, 12(4), 67–72. https://doi.org/10.1108/13683040810919971
Bourne, M. C., Franco, M., & Wilkes, J. (2003). Corporate performance management. Measuring Business Excellence, 7(3), 15–21. https://doi.org/10.1108/13683040310496462
Bourne, M. C., Mills, J. F., Wilcox, M., Neely, A. D., & Platts, K. W. (2000). Designing, implementing and updating performance measurement systems. International Journal of Operations and Production management, 20(7), 754–771. https://doi.org/10.1108/01443570010330739
Cheng, M. M., Luckett, P. F., & Mahama, H. (2007). Effect of perceived conflict among multiple performance goals and goal difficulty on task performance. Accounting and Finance, 47(2), 221–242. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-629X.2007.00215.x
Choong, K. K. (2014). The fundamentals of performance measurement systems: A systematic approach to theory and a research agenda. International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management, 63(7), 879–922. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJPPM-01-2013-0015
Couturier, J., & Sklavounos, N. (2019). Performance dialogue: A framework to enhance the effectiveness of performance measurement systems. International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management, 68(4), 699–720. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJPPM-09-2017-0238
Crabtree, A. D., & DeBusk, G. K. (2008). The effects of adopting the balanced scorecard on shareholder returns. Advances in Accounting, 24(1), 8–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adiac.2008.05.016
Cross, K. F., & Lynch, R. L. (1992). For good measure. CMA Magazine, (April), 20–23.
Cuccurullo, C., Aria, M., & Sarto, F. (2016). Foundations and trends in performance management. A twenty-five years bibliometric analysis in business and public administration domains. Scientometrics, 108, 595–611. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-016-1948-8
Cuguero-Escofet, N., & Rosanas, J. M. (2013). The just design and use of management control systems as requirements for goal congruence. Management Accounting Research, 24, 23–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mar.2012.11.001
Davis, S., & Albright, T. (2004). An investigation of the effect of Balanced Scorecard implementation on financial performance. Management Accounting Research, 5, 135–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mar.2003.11.001
de Waal, A. (2018). Defining and measuring high performance organization. Retreived May 3, 2023, from https://www.hpocenter.nl/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Clute-2018-Defining-and-measuring-the-high-organizational-organization-De-Waal.pdf
de Waal, A. (2007). Strategic performance management. A managerial and behavioural approach. Palgrave Macmillan.
Eccles, R. G. (1991). The performance measurement manifesto. Harvard Business Review, 69(1), 131–137.
Ferreira, A., & Otley, D. (2009). The design and use of management control systems: An extended framework for analysis. Management Accounting Research, 20, 263–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mar.2009.07.003
Folan, P., & Browne, J. (2005). A review of performance measurement: Towards performance management. Journal Computers in Industry, 56(7), 663–680. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compind.2005.03.001
Franco-Santos, M., Lucianetti, L., & Bourne, M. (2012). Contemporary performance measurement systems: A review of their consequences and a framework for research. Management Accounting Research, 23, 79–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mar.2012.04.001
Franco-Santos, M., Kennerley, M., Pietro, M., Martinez, V., Mason, S., Marr, B., Gray, D., & Neely, A. (2007). Towards a definition of a business performance measurement system. International Journal of Operations and Production Management, 27(8), 784–801. https://doi.org/10.1108/01443570710763778
Franco, M., & Bourne, M. (2003). Factors that play a role in “managing through measures”. Management Decision, 41(8), 698–710. https://doi.org/10.1108/00251740310496215
Govindarajan, V., & Shank, J. K. (1992). Strategic cost management: Tailoring controls to strategies. Journal of Cost Management, 6(3), 14–25.
Guenther, T. W., & Heinicke, A. (2019). Relationships among types of use, levels of sophistication, and organizational outcomes of performance measurement systems: The crucial role of design choices. Management Accounting Research, 42, 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mar.2018.07.002
Hall, M. (2008). The effect of comprehensive performance measurement systems on role clarity, psychological empowerment and managerial performance. Accounting Organizations and Society, 33(2–3), 141–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aos.2007.02.004
HassabElnaby, H. R., Said, A. A., & Wier, B. (2005). The retention of nonfinancial performance measures in compensation contracts. Journal of Management Accounting Research, 17, 23–42. https://doi.org/10.2308/jmar.2005.17.1.23
Hope, T., & Hope, J. (1995). Transforming the bottom line. Nicholas Brealey Publishing.
Hoque, Z. (2004). A contingency model of the association between strategy, environmental uncertainty and performance measurement: Impact on organizational performance. International Business Review, 13, 485–502. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2004.04.003
Hoque, Z., & James, W. (2000). Linking balanced scorecard measures to size and market factors: Impact on organizational performance. Journal of Management Accounting Research, 12, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.2308/jmar.2000.12.1.1
Irfani, D. P., Wibisono, D., & Basri, M. H. (2020). Integrating performance measurement, system dynamics, and problem-solving methods. International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management, 69(5), 939–961. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJPPM-12-2018-0456
Ittner, C. D., Larcker, D. F., & Randall, T. (2003). Performance implications of strategic performance measurement in financial service firms. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 28(7–8), 715–741. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0361-3682(03)00033-3
Jazayeri, M., & Scapens, R. W. (2008). The business values scorecard within BAE systems: The evolution of a performance measurement system. British Accounting Review, 40(1), 48–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bar.2007.10.007
Jukka, T. (2023). Does business strategy and management control system fit determine performance? International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management, 72(3), 659–678. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJPPM-11-2020-0584
Kadak, T., & Laitinen, E. K. (2016a). What matters with PMS? Critical check points in the success of PMS. Studies in Managerial and Financial Accounting, Performance Measurement and Management Control: Contemporary Issues, 31, 111–140. https://doi.org/10.1108/S1479-351220160000031004
Kadak, T., & Laitinen, E. K. (2016b). Are more formal performance management systems more successful. In Accounting, Auditing, and Taxation, ICAAT 2016 (pp. 173−189). Atlantis Press. https://doi.org/10.2991/icaat-16.2016.19
Kadak, T. (2011). Creation of a supportive model for designing and improving the performance management system of an organisation. Case studies. Tallinn University of Technology, TUT Press.
Kaplan, R. S., & Norton, D. P. (2006). Alignment: Using the balanced scorecard to create corporate synergies. Harvard Business School Press.
Kaplan, R. S., & Norton, D. P. (2001). The strategy-focused organization: How balanced scorecard companies thrive in the new business environment. Harvard Business School Press.
Kaplan, R. S., & Norton, D. P. (1996). The balanced scorecard. Harvard Business School Press.
Kaplan, R. S., & Norton, D. P. (1992). The balanced scorecard – measures that drive performance. Harvard Business Review, (January/February), 71–79.
Laitinen, E. K., & Kadak, T. (2019). Explaining success of performance management systems: The role of chain of key factors. International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management, 68(2), 362–388. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJPPM-01-2018-0005
Lohman, C., Fortuin, L., & Wouters, M. (2004). Designing a performance measurement system: A case study. European Journal of Operational Research, 156, 267–286. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0377-2217(02)00918-9
Meekings, A. (1995). Unlocking the potential of performance measurement: A guide to practical implementation. Public Money and Management, 8(4), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540969509387888
Malina, M. A., & Selto, F. H. (2001). Communicating and controlling strategy: an empirical study of the effectiveness of the balanced scorecard. Journal of Management Accounting Research, 13, 47–90. https://doi.org/10.2308/jmar.2001.13.1.47
Matos, L. D. S., Ensslin, S. R., & Ensslin, L. (2019). A review on the performance measurement systems life cycle. Lex Localis – Journal of Local Self-Government, 17(4), 939–959.
Miles, R. E., & Snow, C. C. (1978). Organizational strategy, structure and process. McGraw-Hill. https://doi.org/10.2307/257544
Morgan, G. (2007). Images of organization. Sage Publications.
Neely, A. D. (2008). Does the balanced scorecard work: An empirical investigation. (Research paper, 1/08). Cranfield University, School of Management, Cranfield.
Neely, A. D. (2005). The evolution of performance measurement research: developments in the last decade and a research agenda for the next. International Journal of Operations and Production Management, 25(12), 1264–1277. https://doi.org/10.1108/01443570510633648
Nudurupati, S. S., Garengo, P., & Bititci, U. S. (2021). Impact of the changing business environment on performance measurement and management practices. International Journal of Production Economics, 232, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpe.2020.107942
Said, A. A., HassabElnaby, H. R., & Wier, B. (2003). An empirical investigation of the performance consequences of nonfinancial measures. Journal of Management Accounting Research, 15, 193–223. https://doi.org/10.2308/jmar.2003.15.1.193
Sardi, A., Sorani, E., Ferrais, A., & Garengo, P. (2020). Evolutionary paths of performance measurement and management system: the longitudinal case study of a leading SM. Measuring Business Excellence, 24(4), 495–510. https://doi.org/10.1108/MBE-01-2020-0016
Simons, R. (1995). Levers of control: How managers use innovative control systems to drive strategic renewal. Harvard Business School Press.
Speckbacher, G., Bischof, J., & Pfeiffer, T. (2003). A descriptive analysis on the implementation of balanced scorecards in German-speaking countries. Management Accounting Research, 14, 361–387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mar.2003.10.001
SPSS Inc. (2001). The SPSS twostep cluster component: A scalable component enabling more efficient customer segmentation (Technical report). Chicago, IL.
Tangen, S. (2005). Insights from practice Analysing the requirements of performance measurement systems. Measuring Business Excellence, 9(4), 46–54. https://doi.org/10.1108/13683040510634835
Taticchi, P., Balachandran, K., & Tonelli, F. (2012). Performance measurement and management systems: state of the art, guidelines for design and challenges. Measuring Business Excellence, 16(2), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1108/13683041211230311
Vancil, R. F. (1973). What kind of management control do you need? Harvard Business Review.
Yu, L., Perera, S., & Crowe, S. (2008). Effectiveness of the balanced scorecard: The impact of strategy and causal links. Journal of Applied Management Accounting Research, 6(2), 37–56.