A laminar flow, propulsive, jet-flapped concept for electrically powered transport aircraft
Abstract
Friction drag constitutes approximately half of the total drag of subsonic civil transport aircraft at cruise conditions. Several means were examined to control the flow over an aircraft and achieve laminar flow. Here, a new concept for friction drag reduction in the form of an integration of the aerodynamics and propulsion of the aircraft is put forward. Engines buried in the wing and at the rear of the fuselage suck the boundary layer of the entire wing and fuselage surface, and then, they used it as intake air and exhaust through ducts. At the wings, the engines exhaust in the form of a jet flap at the trailing edge providing distributed propulsion. By this laminar flow, propulsive concept laminar flow is established over the entire aircraft, resulting in substantial drag reduction. The analysis showed that out of the four electrically powered aircraft versions considered only the combined lift distribution with tailless fuselage is about to be feasible. It was also found that the example aircraft design is inappropriate. It is expected that a design purposely based on the proposed concept would bring electrically powered transport aircraft within the specific energy levels of present batteries.
Keyword : jet wing, drag reduction, laminar flow, hybrid laminar flow control (HLFC), boundary-layer suction, distributed propulsion, jet flap, electric aircraft
How to Cite
Kehayas, N. (2023). A laminar flow, propulsive, jet-flapped concept for electrically powered transport aircraft. Aviation, 27(1), 14–26. https://doi.org/10.3846/aviation.2023.18498
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
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Drela, M. (2009). Power balance in aerodynamic flows. AIAA Journal, 47(7), 1761–1771. https://doi.org/10.2514/1.42409
Fielding, J. P., & Kehayas, N. (2000). Design synthesis and optimization of an advanced short take-off and vertical landing (ASTOVL) combat aircraft. In Proceedings of the 22nd International Congress of Aeronautical Sciences (pp. 1–12). Harrogate, United Kingdom.
Garland, D. B. (1964). Jet flap thrust recovery: Its history and experimental realization. In Proceedings of the AIAA/CASI Joint Conference (pp. 1–9). Ottawa, Canada. https://doi.org/10.2514/6.1964-797
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Hall, D. K., Huang, A. C., Uranga, A., Greitzer, E. M., Drela, M., & Sato, S. (2017). Boundary layer ingestion propulsion benefit for transport aircraft. Journal of Propulsion and Power, 33(5), 1118–1129. https://doi.org/10.2514/1.B36321
Hepperle, M. (2012). Electric flight – Potential and limitations. In NATO AVT-209 Workshop on Energy Efficient Technologies and Concepts, Technical Report STO-MP-AVT-209 (pp. 9–1, 9–30). Braunschweig, Germany.
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Jia, Y., Li, J., & Wu, J. (2021). Power fan design of blended-wing-body aircraft with distributed propulsion system. International Journal of Aerospace Engineering, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/5128136
Jin, Y., Qian, Y., Zhang, Y., & Zhuge, W. (2018). Modeling of ducted-fan and motor in an electric aircraft and a preliminary integrated design. SAE International Journal of Aerospace, 11(2), 115–126. https://doi.org/10.4271/01-11-02-0007
Joslin, R. D. (1998). Overview of laminar flow control. NASA TP-208705.
Kammermann, J., Bolvashenkov, I., Tran, K., Herzog, H.-G., & Frenkel, I. (2020). Feasibility study for a full-electric aircraft considering weight, volume, and reliability requirements. In 2020 International Conference on Electrotechnical Complexes and Systems (ICOECS) (pp. 1–6). Ufa, Russia. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICOECS50468.2020.9278461
Kehayas, N. (1986). The controlled propulsive wing. United Kingdom Patent Office, UK Patent GB2167831 B, 1988.
Kehayas, N. (1992). ASTOVL combat aircraft design synthesis and optimization (Report No 9201). Cranfield University.
Kehayas, N. (1998). The blended wing-body configuration as an alternative to conventional subsonic civil transport aircraft design. In Proceedings of the 21st International Congress of Aeronautical Sciences (pp. 1–7). Melbourne, Australia.
Kehayas, N. (2006). A powered lift design for subsonic civil transport aircraft. In Proceedings of the 25th International Congress of Aeronautical Sciences (pp. 1–10). Hamburg, Germany.
Kehayas, N. (2007). Aeronautical technology for future subsonic civil transport aircraft. Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology, 79(6), 600–610. https://doi.org/10.1108/00022660710829791
Kehayas, N. (2011a). Integrated aircraft. United States Patent and Trademark Office, US Patent Application No: 13/064,521 Mar. 30, 2011; Publication No: US2011/0240804, Oct. 6, 2011.
Kehayas, N. (2011b). Propulsion system of a jet-flapped subsonic civil transport aircraft design. AIAA Journal of Aircraft, 48(2), 697–702. https://doi.org/10.2514/1.C031123
Kehayas, N. (2021). An alternative approach to induced drag reduction. Aviation, 25(3), 202–210. https://doi.org/10.3846/aviation.2021.15663
Kim, H. D., & Saunders, J. D. (2003). Embedded wing propulsion conceptual study. NASA TM-212696.
Kim, H. D., Berton, J. J., & Jones, S. M. (2006). Low noise cruise efficient short take-off and landing transport vehicle study. In 6th AIAA Aviation Technology, Integration and Operations Conference (ATIO), AIAA 2006-7738, (pp. 1–11). Wichita, Kansas, USA. https://doi.org/10.2514/6.2006-7738
Ko, A., Schetz, J. A., & Mason, W. H. (2003). Assessment of the potential advantages of distributed propulsion for aircraft. In 16th International Symposium on Air Breathing Engines, ISABE-2003-1094 (pp. 1–9). Cleveland, Ohio, USA.
Kroo, I. (2001). Drag due to lift: Concepts for prediction and reduction. Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, 33, 587–617. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.fluid.33.1.587
Lv, P., Rao, A. G., Ragni, D., & Veldhuis, L. (2016). Performance analysis of wake and boundary-layer ingestion for aircraft design. Journal of Aircraft, 53(5), 1517–1526. https://doi.org/10.2514/1.C033395
Leifsson, L. T., Ko, A., Mason, W. H., Schetz, J. A., Hatfka, R. T., & Grossman, B. (2005). Multidisciplinary design optimization for a blended wing body transport aircraft with distributed propulsion. Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University Multidisciplinary Analysis and Design Center (MAD Center) Report 2005-05-01.
OXIS Energy. (2020). Next generation battery technology. In Press Release, 22nd January 2020. https://www.0xisenergy.com
Pfenninger, W., & Groth, E. (1961). Low drag boundary layer suction experiments in flight on a wing glove of an F-94A airplane with suction through a large number of fine slots. In G. V. Lachmann (Ed.), Boundary layer and flow control (Vol. 2, pp. 981–999). Pergamon Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-4832-1323-1.50014-2
Reneaux, J. (2004). Overview of drag reduction technologies for civil transport aircraft. In P. Neittaanmaki, T. Rossi, S. Korotov, E. Oñate, J. Périaux, & D. Knörtzer (Eds), European Congress on Computational Methods in Applied Sciences and Engineering (ECCOMAS 2004) (pp. 1–18). Jyvädkylã, Finland.
Schetz, J. A., Hosder, S., Dippold III, V., & Walker, J. (2010). Propulsion and aerodynamic performance evaluation of jet-wing distributed propulsion. Aerospace Science and Technology, 14(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ast.2009.06.010
Smith, A. M. O., & Roberts, H. E. (1947). The jet airplane utilizing boundary layer air for propulsion. Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences, 14(2), 97–109. https://doi.org/10.2514/8.1273
Smith, L. H. (1993). Wake ingestion propulsive benefit. Journal of Propulsion and Power, 9(1), 74–82. https://doi.org/10.2514/3.11487
The Faraday Institution. (2020). Faraday insights (issue 8). https://www.faraday.ac.uk
Torenbeek, E. (2013). Advanced aircraft design. Conceptual design, analysis and optimization of subsonic civil airplanes. Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118568101
Arntz, A. & Atinault, O. (2015). Exergy-based performance assessment of a blended wing-body with boundary-layer ingestion. AIAA Journal, 53(12), 3766–3776. https://doi.org/10.2514/1.J054072
Attinello, J. S. (1957). The jet wing. In IAS 25th Annual meeting. Los Angeles, California, Preprint No. 703.
Bensel, A. (2018). Characteristics of the specific fuel consumption for jet engines. Project, Department of Automotive and Aeronautical Engineering, Hamburg University of Applied Science. https://doi.org/10.15488/4316
Bevilaqua, P. M., Schum, E. F., & Woan, C. J. (1984). Progress towards a theory of jet-flap thrust recovery. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 141, 347–364. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022112084000884
Bolam, R. C., Vagapov, Y., & Anuchin, A. (2020). A review of electrical motor topologies for aircraft propulsion. In 55th International Universities Power Engineering Conference (UPEC) (pp. 1–6). Turin, Italy. https://doi.org/10.1109/UPEC49904.2020.9209783
Bowden, M. K., Renshaw, J. H., & Sweet, H. S. (1974). Propulsion integration for a hybrid propulsive-lift system. In SAE Technical Paper 740471, 1–12. SAE Mobilus. https://doi.org/10.4271/740471
Chin, Y.-T., Aiken, T. N., & Oates, G. S. (1975). Evaluation of a new jet flap propulsive-lift system. Journal of Aircraft, 12(7), 605–610. https://doi.org/10.2514/3.59841
Davidson, I. M. (1956). The jet flap. The Aeronautical Journal, 60(541), 25–50. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0368393100132389
Drela, M. (2009). Power balance in aerodynamic flows. AIAA Journal, 47(7), 1761–1771. https://doi.org/10.2514/1.42409
Fielding, J. P., & Kehayas, N. (2000). Design synthesis and optimization of an advanced short take-off and vertical landing (ASTOVL) combat aircraft. In Proceedings of the 22nd International Congress of Aeronautical Sciences (pp. 1–12). Harrogate, United Kingdom.
Garland, D. B. (1964). Jet flap thrust recovery: Its history and experimental realization. In Proceedings of the AIAA/CASI Joint Conference (pp. 1–9). Ottawa, Canada. https://doi.org/10.2514/6.1964-797
Gohardani, A. S., Doulgeris, G., & Singh, R. (2011). Challenges of future aircraft propulsion: A review of distributed propulsion technology and its potential application for the all electric commercial aircraft. Progress in Aerospace Sciences, 47(5), 369–391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2010.09.001
Gohardani, A. S. (2013). A synergistic glance at the prospects of distributed propulsion technology and the electric aircraft concept for future unmanned air vehicles and commercial/military aviation. Progress in Aerospace Sciences, 57, 25–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2012.08.001
Hall, D. K., Huang, A. C., Uranga, A., Greitzer, E. M., Drela, M., & Sato, S. (2017). Boundary layer ingestion propulsion benefit for transport aircraft. Journal of Propulsion and Power, 33(5), 1118–1129. https://doi.org/10.2514/1.B36321
Hepperle, M. (2012). Electric flight – Potential and limitations. In NATO AVT-209 Workshop on Energy Efficient Technologies and Concepts, Technical Report STO-MP-AVT-209 (pp. 9–1, 9–30). Braunschweig, Germany.
Houghton, E. L., & Brock, A. E. (1970). Aerodynamics for engineering students (2nd ed.). Edward Arnold Publishers Limited.
Howe, D. (2000). Aircraft conceptual design synthesis. Professional Engineering Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118903094
Isikveren, A. T., Seitz, A., Bijewitz, J., Hornung, M., Mirzoyan, A., Isyanov, A., Godard, J.-L., Stückl, S., & van Toor, J. (2014). Recent advances in airframe-propulsion concepts with distributed propulsion. In Proceedings of the 29th International Congress of Aeronautical Sciences (pp. 1–14). St. Petersburg, Russia.
Jia, Y., Li, J., & Wu, J. (2021). Power fan design of blended-wing-body aircraft with distributed propulsion system. International Journal of Aerospace Engineering, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/5128136
Jin, Y., Qian, Y., Zhang, Y., & Zhuge, W. (2018). Modeling of ducted-fan and motor in an electric aircraft and a preliminary integrated design. SAE International Journal of Aerospace, 11(2), 115–126. https://doi.org/10.4271/01-11-02-0007
Joslin, R. D. (1998). Overview of laminar flow control. NASA TP-208705.
Kammermann, J., Bolvashenkov, I., Tran, K., Herzog, H.-G., & Frenkel, I. (2020). Feasibility study for a full-electric aircraft considering weight, volume, and reliability requirements. In 2020 International Conference on Electrotechnical Complexes and Systems (ICOECS) (pp. 1–6). Ufa, Russia. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICOECS50468.2020.9278461
Kehayas, N. (1986). The controlled propulsive wing. United Kingdom Patent Office, UK Patent GB2167831 B, 1988.
Kehayas, N. (1992). ASTOVL combat aircraft design synthesis and optimization (Report No 9201). Cranfield University.
Kehayas, N. (1998). The blended wing-body configuration as an alternative to conventional subsonic civil transport aircraft design. In Proceedings of the 21st International Congress of Aeronautical Sciences (pp. 1–7). Melbourne, Australia.
Kehayas, N. (2006). A powered lift design for subsonic civil transport aircraft. In Proceedings of the 25th International Congress of Aeronautical Sciences (pp. 1–10). Hamburg, Germany.
Kehayas, N. (2007). Aeronautical technology for future subsonic civil transport aircraft. Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology, 79(6), 600–610. https://doi.org/10.1108/00022660710829791
Kehayas, N. (2011a). Integrated aircraft. United States Patent and Trademark Office, US Patent Application No: 13/064,521 Mar. 30, 2011; Publication No: US2011/0240804, Oct. 6, 2011.
Kehayas, N. (2011b). Propulsion system of a jet-flapped subsonic civil transport aircraft design. AIAA Journal of Aircraft, 48(2), 697–702. https://doi.org/10.2514/1.C031123
Kehayas, N. (2021). An alternative approach to induced drag reduction. Aviation, 25(3), 202–210. https://doi.org/10.3846/aviation.2021.15663
Kim, H. D., & Saunders, J. D. (2003). Embedded wing propulsion conceptual study. NASA TM-212696.
Kim, H. D., Berton, J. J., & Jones, S. M. (2006). Low noise cruise efficient short take-off and landing transport vehicle study. In 6th AIAA Aviation Technology, Integration and Operations Conference (ATIO), AIAA 2006-7738, (pp. 1–11). Wichita, Kansas, USA. https://doi.org/10.2514/6.2006-7738
Ko, A., Schetz, J. A., & Mason, W. H. (2003). Assessment of the potential advantages of distributed propulsion for aircraft. In 16th International Symposium on Air Breathing Engines, ISABE-2003-1094 (pp. 1–9). Cleveland, Ohio, USA.
Kroo, I. (2001). Drag due to lift: Concepts for prediction and reduction. Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, 33, 587–617. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.fluid.33.1.587
Lv, P., Rao, A. G., Ragni, D., & Veldhuis, L. (2016). Performance analysis of wake and boundary-layer ingestion for aircraft design. Journal of Aircraft, 53(5), 1517–1526. https://doi.org/10.2514/1.C033395
Leifsson, L. T., Ko, A., Mason, W. H., Schetz, J. A., Hatfka, R. T., & Grossman, B. (2005). Multidisciplinary design optimization for a blended wing body transport aircraft with distributed propulsion. Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University Multidisciplinary Analysis and Design Center (MAD Center) Report 2005-05-01.
OXIS Energy. (2020). Next generation battery technology. In Press Release, 22nd January 2020. https://www.0xisenergy.com
Pfenninger, W., & Groth, E. (1961). Low drag boundary layer suction experiments in flight on a wing glove of an F-94A airplane with suction through a large number of fine slots. In G. V. Lachmann (Ed.), Boundary layer and flow control (Vol. 2, pp. 981–999). Pergamon Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-4832-1323-1.50014-2
Reneaux, J. (2004). Overview of drag reduction technologies for civil transport aircraft. In P. Neittaanmaki, T. Rossi, S. Korotov, E. Oñate, J. Périaux, & D. Knörtzer (Eds), European Congress on Computational Methods in Applied Sciences and Engineering (ECCOMAS 2004) (pp. 1–18). Jyvädkylã, Finland.
Schetz, J. A., Hosder, S., Dippold III, V., & Walker, J. (2010). Propulsion and aerodynamic performance evaluation of jet-wing distributed propulsion. Aerospace Science and Technology, 14(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ast.2009.06.010
Smith, A. M. O., & Roberts, H. E. (1947). The jet airplane utilizing boundary layer air for propulsion. Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences, 14(2), 97–109. https://doi.org/10.2514/8.1273
Smith, L. H. (1993). Wake ingestion propulsive benefit. Journal of Propulsion and Power, 9(1), 74–82. https://doi.org/10.2514/3.11487
The Faraday Institution. (2020). Faraday insights (issue 8). https://www.faraday.ac.uk
Torenbeek, E. (2013). Advanced aircraft design. Conceptual design, analysis and optimization of subsonic civil airplanes. Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118568101